[IR1] Introduction to International Relations (IR), Politics and Power Structures
"International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power. Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate aim." - Hans Morgenthau (IR theory expert)
In the last post, we discussed Pluralism (Ideal view) vs Elitism (realistic way of how things work) in a democracy. The next few posts will be dedicated to International Relations (IR), and the prevailing political order.
International Relations (IR) is the study of organized groups of people interacting with each other across political boundaries. These groups can range from small tribes to large empires of the past [1]. The study of IR dates back to the very beginnings of human civilization. Once individuals assembled into tribes and eventually established nations, their interactions naturally created the basis for both written and unwritten international relations. The earliest study of IR can be traced back to Thucydides, who wrote the "History of the Peloponnesian War." Additionally, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and Cicero wrote primarily in a normative sense about how international affairs should be conducted.
What is the motivation behind studying International Relations (IR)? The study of IR has become increasingly significant in the modern globalized world. Following the collapse of large empires, numerous smaller nations emerged, making their relationships and interactions crucial for understanding the interconnected world. Isolationism is now impractical, as global events inevitably impact all nations. Understanding these dynamics assists in constructing models, predicting a nation's behavior in current or hypothetical situations, and fostering cooperation to address shared challenges.
In the modern day, International Relations (IR) primarily focuses on the relations between nations, although from the 20th century onward, actors like multinational companies (MNCs) and international bodies (UN, IMF, World Bank) have also played major roles. The roots of the current nation-state system can be traced back to 1648 after the Thirty Years' War, a religious conflict in Germany that resulted in the deaths of a third of the country's population and led to the Treaty of Westphalia. Nationalism grew with the Romantic movement in France, culminating in the French and American revolutions. Influential figures from French Romantics like Victor Hugo and German idealists like Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, and Herder were pivotal in promoting nationalism in Europe. The Napoleonic wars and colonialism further fueled nationalist sentiments among subjugated populations, leading people to identify more closely with shared cultural, historical, and linguistic ties. As a result, nation-states emerged as the primary political entities in today's world.
There are several key concepts in the study of International relations but three of the most central concepts (if not the most important ones) in the field of IR are:
(a) Power: the ability to make other nations do something they wouldn't do based on their own free will. Two related terms are Hard-power, which relies on using military might, economic leverage, and other tangible resources to compel others to act in a certain way and Soft-power, which relies on the ability to shape the preferences and behaviors of others through attraction, persuasion, and appeal.
(b) Conflicts: A serious disagreement or clash of interests between two or more actors in the international arena. These disputes can stem from a variety of sources, including competing territorial claims, ideological differences, access to resources, or power imbalances.
(b) Cooperation: Cooperation involves states and international actors working together to achieve common goals and solve collective problems. It is facilitated by diplomacy, international institutions, treaties, and norms.
Power Structures
Power structures in international relations refer to the distribution and dynamics of power among states and other actors within the international system. These structures shape how states interact, form alliances, and pursue their interests. Here are the main power structures in international relations:
1. Unipolarity
Definition: A power structure where one state holds most of the power and dominates the international system.
Example: The post-Cold War period is often cited as a unipolar moment with the United States as the dominant global power.
Characteristics: The unipolar state has significant influence over global political, economic, and security matters. It can shape international norms and institutions to a large extent.
2. Bipolarity
Definition: A power structure where two states or coalitions of states have the most significant power and influence, often leading to a balance of power between them.
Example: The Cold War era, characterized by the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. The rivalry between Athens and Sparta in ancient Greek was also recorded by Thucydides
Characteristics: Bipolarity can lead to intense competition and rivalry, but it can also create stability through mutual deterrence and clear spheres of influence.
3. Multipolarity
Definition: A power structure where multiple states or coalitions hold significant power and influence, preventing any single state from dominating.
Example: The pre-World War I international system, with major powers like the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Russia, and Austria-Hungary.
Characteristics: Multipolar systems can be more fluid and complex, with shifting alliances and balances of power. They can be less stable due to the difficulty of maintaining a balance among multiple powerful states.
Theoretical Frameworks
A theoretical framework is a broad structure that integrates multiple theories and concepts for analysis. It offers a cohesive system for organizing ideas and provides context for understanding findings. It typically includes relevant theories, key concepts, assumptions, and their relationships.
The three major frameworks for analyzing international relations are Realism, Idealism (often referred to as Liberalism), and Constructivism. These frameworks provide distinct perspectives on how states interact, the nature of international politics, and the factors that drive global events.
1. Realism
Realism is a dominant theoretical framework in studying international politics that perceives the global system as an inherently anarchic and competitive arena where states are the primary actors. It emphasizes the centrality of states' interests, security, and power in shaping international relations [3]. Key assumptions of realism include:
Statism: States are the primary actors in international politics, and their actions are driven by national interests and security concerns.
Anarchy: The international system is characterized by anarchy, meaning there is no central authority to enforce rules or ensure security.
Self-help: In an anarchic system, states must rely on their own capabilities and resources to ensure their survival and achieve their goals.
Power politics: The distribution of power among states is a key determinant of international relations, with stronger states often dominating weaker ones.
Security dilemma: States' efforts to increase their security can lead to heightened tensions and conflicts, as other states may perceive these actions as threatening.
Overall, realism views international politics as a struggle for power and survival, where states pursue their interests, often through competitive and conflictual means, within an anarchic global system.
Notable Thinkers: Thucydides, Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Hans Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz.
2. Idealism (Liberalism)
Idealism (or liberal idealism) is a theoretical perspective in international politics that emphasizes the importance of cooperation, interdependence, and shared norms in shaping global relations. It stands in contrast to the realist school of thought, advocating for a more optimistic view of international relations. Key principles of idealism include:
Cooperation: Idealism stresses the value of collaboration among states to achieve mutual interests and promote peace.
Interdependence: States are seen as interconnected, with their welfare and security linked to the wellbeing of others. This encourages cooperation and peaceful relations.
International institutions: Idealism values the role of international organizations and institutions in promoting cooperation, resolving conflicts, and fostering stability.
Democratic values: Idealists believe that democratic principles, such as respect for human rights and self-determination, can contribute to a more peaceful global order.
Collective security: States can work together to maintain security through collective action, deterring aggression, and promoting disarmament.
Overall, idealism offers an optimistic view of international politics, asserting that cooperation and shared values can mitigate conflict and build a more harmonious global community.
Notable Thinkers: Immanuel Kant, Woodrow Wilson, John Locke, Robert Keohane, Joseph Nye.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism is a theoretical perspective in international politics that emphasizes the role of social constructs, such as ideas, norms, and identities, in shaping the behavior of states and other actors in the international system. It challenges the traditional perspectives of realism and liberalism by focusing on the intersubjective nature of global politics. Key principles of constructivism include:
Social construction of reality: Constructivists argue that the world is 'socially constructed' through shared ideas, norms, and beliefs, which shape state identities and interests.
Identity and interests: State identities and interests are not fixed or given but are shaped by social norms, interactions, and historical contexts.
Collective identity: Constructivists believe that collective identities, such as alliances or regional groupings, can influence state behavior and lead to cooperation.
Norm diffusion: Ideas and norms can spread across borders, shaping state preferences and policies, and influencing international relations.
Ideological factors: Constructivism emphasizes the importance of ideological factors, such as culture, values, and beliefs in understanding global politics.
In summary, constructivism argues that the social construction of reality, including identities, norms, and beliefs, plays a crucial role in shaping the international system and the behavior of states within it.
Notable Thinkers: Alexander Wendt, Nicholas Onuf, Martha Finnemore, Peter Katzenstein.
Summary Comparison of Different Theoretical Frameworks
Realism focuses on the competitive and conflictual nature of international relations, emphasizing power and national interest.
Idealism (Liberalism) highlights the potential for cooperation, the role of international institutions, and the positive effects of democracy and interdependence.
Constructivism emphasizes the importance of ideas, norms, and identities, suggesting that the international system is shaped by social constructs and can change over time.
Each framework offers unique insights and tools for understanding the complex and multifaceted nature of international relations.
Following the emergence of classical theories within each theoretical framework, new theories such as neorealism and neoidealism have surfaced in the field of international relations.
Our upcoming post will delve into these contemporary theories and evaluate the various levels of analysis utilized to comprehend global politics, conflict, and political order.
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References
[1] Stadelmann, M. (2020). Political Science For Dummies, Wiley publication, US, ISBN-1119674840
[2] Nye, Joseph S. (2004). Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics. Hachette UK (published 2009). ISBN 9780786738960.
[3] Dunne, Tim and Brian C. Schmidt (2004). "Realism," in The Globalisation of World Politics, New York: Oxford University Press, 4th ed.